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08/08/2024
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25/06/2023
Translating Business
Rules into Data Model
Components
Business rules set the stage for the
proper identifcation of entities,
attributes, relationships, and constraints.
In the real world, names are used to
identify objects. If the business
environment wants to keep track of the
objects, there will be specifc business
rules for the objects. As a general rule, a
noun in a business rule will translate into
an entity in the model, and a verb (active
or passive) that associates the nouns will
translate into a relationship among the
entities. For example, the business rule “a
customer may generate many invoices”
contains two nouns (customer and
invoices) and a verb (generate) that
associates the nouns. From this business
rule, you could deduce the following:
• Customer and invoice are objects of
interest for the environment and should be
repre-�
sented by their respective entities.• Tere
is a generate relationship between
customer and invoice.
To properly identify the type of
relationship, you should consider that
relationships are bidirectional; that is,
they go both ways. For example, the
business rule “a customer may generate
many invoices” is complemented by the
business rule “an invoice is generated by
only one customer.” In that case, the
relationship is one-to-many (1:M).
Customer is the “1” side, and invoice is
the “many” side.
As a general rule, to properly identify �
the relationship type, you should ask
two questions:
• How many instances of B are related to
one instance of A?• How many instances
of A are related to one instance of B?
For example, you can assess the
relationship between student and class by
asking two questions:
• In how many classes can one student
enroll? Answer: many classes.• How many
students can enroll in one class? Answer: �
09/06/2023
Discovering Business
Rules
Te main sources of business rules are
company managers, policy makers,
department managers, and written
documentation such as a company’s
procedures, standards, and operations
manuals. A faster and more direct source
of business rules is direct interviews with
end users. Unfortunately, because
perceptions difer, end users are
sometimes a less reliable source when it
comes to specifying business rules. For
example, a maintenance department
mechanic might believe that any
mechanic can initiate a maintenance
procedure, when actually only mechanics
with inspection authorization can
perform such a task. Such a distinction
might seem trivial, but it can have major
legal consequences. Although end users
are crucial contributors to the
development of business rules, it pays to
verify end-user perceptions. Too ofen,
interviews with several people who
perform the
business rule�
A description of a policy, procedure, or principle
within an organization. For example, a pilot cannot
be on duty for more than 10 hours during a 24-hour
period, or a professor may teach up to four classes
during �
04/06/2023
Database System: �
Business Rules
When database designers go about
selecting or determining the entities,
attributes, and relationships that will be
used to build a data model, they might
start by gaining a thorough
understanding of what types of data exist
in an organization, how the data is used,
and in what time frames it is used. But
such data and information do not, by
themselves, yield the required
understanding of the total business.
From a database point of view, the
collection of data becomes meaningful
only when it refects properly defned
business rules. A business rule is a brief,
precise, and unambiguous description of
a policy, procedure, or principle within a
specifc organization. In a sense, business
rules are misnamed: they apply to any
organization, large or small—a business,
a government unit, a religious group, or a
research laboratory—that stores and uses
data to generate information.
Business rules derived from a detailed
description of an organization’s
operations help to create and enforce �
actions within that organization’s
environment. Business rules must be
rendered in writing and updated to
refect any change in the organization’s
operational environment.�
Properly written business rules are used
to defne entities, attributes, relationships,
and constraints. Any time you see
relationship statements such as “an agent
can serve many customers, and each
customer can be served by only one agent,”
business rules are at work. You will see the
application of business rules throughout
this book, especially in the chapters
devoted to data modeling and database � To be efective, business rules must be
easy to understand and widely
disseminated to ensure that every person
in the organization shares a common
interpretation of the rules. Business rules
describe, in simple language, the main
and distinguishing characteristics of the
data as viewed by the company. Examples
of business rules are as follows:• A
customer may generate many invoices.•
An invoice is generated by only one
customer.• A training session cannot be
scheduled for fewer than 10 employees or
for more than
30 employees.�
Note that those business rules establish
entities, relationships, and constraints.
For example, the frst two business rules
establish two entities (CUSTOMER and
INVOICE) and a 1:M relationship
between those two entities. Te third
business rule establishes a constraint (no
fewer than 10 people
14/11/2022
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19/09/2022
System Software
System software consists of the
programs that control the operations
of the computer and its devices.
Functions that system software
performs include starting up the
computer; opening, executing,
running, applications; storing,
retrieving, and copying files;
formatting disks; reducing file sizes;
and backing up the contents of a hard
disk. Accordingly you can see that the
System Software will handle the
smooth running of all the components
of the computer as well as providing
general functionality for other
programs to use, tools to speed up
the computer, tools to develop new
software and programs to keep you
safe from attacks.
As shown in the above figure 4.1
there are several types of system �
software. Next sections will look at
each type of system software together
with examples. �
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