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Among the most striking revelations to emerge from Dr. Pitchappan’s research is the identification of individuals in Tamil Nadu who carry the M130 genetic marker—considered the signature of the earliest humans who left Africa tens of thousands of years ago. One such individual is Virumaandi, a resident of Jothimanickam village near Usilampatti, close to Madurai. His DNA matched the M130 marker, linking him to the direct descendants of those early African migrants who began their coastal journey 70,000 years ago.

Virumaandi belongs to the Pira Malai Kallar community, a dominant sociocultural group in the region around Madurai. The very name Pira Malai translates to “the other hill,” indicating a memory of migration embedded in linguistic tradition. The term Kallar is connected to Kallagam, meaning a settlement encircled by hills and hillocks. Some scholars draw parallels between the Kallars and the Kalavars mentioned in Sangam literature—a group often described as warlike tribes.

According to the oral traditions of the Pira Malai Kallars, their community descends from three ancestral forefathers. One branch of this community is believed to be directly tied to the earliest migrants from the African coastline who settled in South India. These narratives, combined with genetic evidence, suggest that some populations around Madurai may represent one of the oldest surviving human lineages in the world, preserving within their DNA the echoes of the first global human journey.

History of Kannada Language

Just three kilometers from Belur lies the quiet village of Halmidi, a place that unexpectedly shaped the linguistic history of Karnataka. In 1930, villagers discovered an inscription near the western entrance of Halmidi, and it was later placed within the Veerabhadreshwara Temple premises. This modest stone would become one of the most significant milestones in the history of the Kannada language.

The Halmidi inscription, dated to around 450 CE, contains two lines dedicated to Lord Vishnu. Written in a 5th-century script, it displays an early blend of classical Sanskrit and Kannada. Its language, structure, and script make it the oldest undisputed Kannada inscription ever found.

Kannada is today the mother tongue of millions across Karnataka, but its roots extend deep into antiquity. Over centuries, the language has evolved into various styles, dialects, and literary forms shaped by geography, culture, and political influence.

Epigraphic evidence confirms the presence of Kannada for more than 1,500 years, and its literary tradition has continued unbroken for over a millennium. Through inscriptions, manuscripts, and oral traditions, Kannada has documented its journey from an early administrative language to a rich literary medium.

Early History of Kurumbas and DNA findings

The etymology of the word Kurumbar suggests that it derives from the Tamil term kurumbu, meaning a mountain or forest. Several terms, like Kurumbar, Kuruman, Kuruba, Kuruma, and Kurubaru, are used to designate the Kurumba caste in different regions of southern India. Kurumba tribes who live in Nilgiris and the Wayanad, with a slight sprinkling in the Nilambur and Atta’paadee hills in Malabar, have their own divisions.

Kuruba community’s history

Traditional sources claim that the Kurubas of the Karnataka region founded the Sangama dynasty, the first of four dynasties to rule the Vijayanagara Empire. Vira Harihara, founder of Vijayanagara, belonged to the Kuruba Gowda clan. Many dynasties in South India, from the Pallavas to the Yadavarayas, were originally members of pastoralist and cowherd groups and belonged to Kurumba lineages.

DNA based evidences for early migrations into India — Y-chromosome of the Kurumba

The Kurumbas are considered to be among India’s earliest inhabitants. An autosomal STR study provided evidence of a connection between the ancient Kurumba tribe and Australian aboriginal populations. Y-STR haplotypes shared with sub-Saharan African populations found in Kurumba, Soleegaa, and Irula may indicate a unique genetic connection between these Indian tribes and sub-Saharan Africans.

History of Kurumba Community

The Mackenzie Manuscript says Tondaimandalam was first inhabited by Kurumbas until their defeat by Ilan Tiraiyan. Kurumbas divided the region into 24 districts and built several forts. The epigraphs of the region also reveal the existence of a sound administrative system. The Paleolithic Culture, as revealed from the excavations carried out in this region at Pallavaram, led to the discovery of many more Paleolithic and Megalithic sites dating back to the Iron Age.

From the viewpoint of the social anthropologist, the Kurumba groups appear to be widely different and fall into, two major categories, various small tribal societies scattered along the Western Ghats, and a much more numerous congeries of castes inhabiting parts of the Deccan plateau, chiefly in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

In the encyclopedia of Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Edgar Thurston mentioned that the Kurumbas are the modern representatives of the Pallavas, who were once so powerful throughout Southern India, but very little trace of their greatness now remains. In the seventh century, the power of the Pallava kings seems to have been at its zenith, but shortly after this, the Chola, and Chalukya chiefs succeeded in winning several victories over them.

The final overthrow of Kurumba sovereignty was effected by the Chola king of Tondai’mandalam in the seventh or eighth century, and the Kurumbas were scattered far and wide. Many fled to the hills, and in the Nilgiris and the Wayanad, in Coorg and Mysore, representatives of this ancient race are now found as primitive tribes. Elsewhere, the Kurumbas are more advanced and are usually shepherds and weavers of coarse woolen blankets.

Kurumba is one of the traditional ethnic groups in south India, principally along the Western Ghats. In the Nilgiris, rock art is found at five sites; the wellayree’kombai Rock Art site differs from the rest of the sites both in coloration and style, apart from the depictions. The ochre painting spread over the rock canvas dates back to the pre-historic era and unfolds vital clues about how the Kurumbas lived.

Carvings of humans and animals on the walls are evidence of a highly civilized society. Prehistoric rock art in the form of paintings or carvings is found in the Nilgiris. The lifestyle and occupation of ancient tribes are reflected in the rock art paintings of this region.

What is the first script in India? | Origin of Indian Scripts

Language and script are different. Language is spoken, and the script is used to represent the language, preserve it for subsequent use, and send messages to people residing in distant places. Harappa, or Indus script, is the first known script in the Indian subcontinent. It was found on stone seals, pots, clay tablets, and bronze artifacts. The Indus Valley Civilization flourished between 3300 BC\ and 1300 BC. The origin of the script is also not clearly stated. Indus script is pictographic and written from right to left. Many researchers and archaeologists tried to decipher it, but it has not been deciphered yet.

Who is the mother of all Indian scripts?

Over a long period of Indian history, many scripts were used due to the vastness of the Indian subcontinent and the diversity of its people. Brahmi was one of the most important scripts used in ancient times. The Brahmi script, developed in the Iron Age, was India’s first alphabetic writing system and was assumed to be the parent of nearly every South Asian script that followed it. As per its regional variations, it is identified as Tamil Brahmi, Asokan Brahmi, Northern Brahmi, Southern Brahmi, and Sinhala Brahmi.

Origin of Indian Scripts

The origins and chronology of Tamil Brahmi are unclear. Several hypotheses have been proposed, more accepted view is, Brahmi script from North India arrived via the southern inscriptions of Ashoka, and evolved into the Tamil Brahmi. Palaeographic changes were made to suit the Tamil language, with the omission of letters for sounds not present in the Tamil language and additions to represent sounds in Tamil that are not available in Brahmi. Brahmi letters were also modified with a special diacritic mark.the dot. These are reflected in the three stages of Tamil-Brahmi development.

The Czech scholar Kamil Zvelebil proposed the view that the earliest Tamil Brahmi inscriptions, such as the Netunceliyan rock inscriptions at the Mangulam site, were derived from Ashokan Brahmi, which was introduced to the Tamil region around 250 BCE.

Another conflicting theory based on the findings of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka and the carbon dating of excavated potsherds led to the proposal that the Sri Lankan Brahmi developed before the Ashokan era, at least by the 5th to 4th century BCE, from where it came to the Tamil region, evolving into the Tamil Brahmi, and thereafter spreading across South Asia due to trade networks.

Even though archaeological sites in Adichanallur, Korkai, Porunthal, Azhagankulam, and Kodumanal uncovered ancient iron objects such as arrow heads and swords, coins, trade routes and even burial urns. However, there aren’t enough inscriptions to prove that Tamil script is unique. In the absence of long-term human settlement, archaeological evidence in the state of Tamil Nadu, It is at least concluded by Tamil scholars and researchers that, over the centuries, the Tamil script also evolved from the Brahmi script. Around 200 CE, Tamil Brahmi evolved into a script called Vatta Ezhuthu. Much later, Vtta Ezhuthu evolved into the modern Tamil script. During Pallava times, the Pallava-grantha script for Sanskrit co-existed here with the Vatta Ezhuthu script for Tamil.

But an excavation overturned all these conclusions about Tamil script.

Who is the mother of all Indian scripts?

Keeladi discoveries have pushed the edge of known history in south India back three centuries, from the 3rd century BC to the 6th century BC.

Keeladi is one of the most important archaeological sites in south India, lies on the bank of the river Vaigai and reflects the ancient culture of the Tamil people. It is a hamlet and quaint village located 12 kilometres southeast of Madurai in Tamil Nadu. The area currently being excavated is spread over 80 acres with a 3.5-kilometer radius. After the Adichanallur archaeological site, the Keeladi excavation is a large-scale excavation in Tamil Nadu. The ancient towns of Kondagai and Manalur are also said to be associated with this region, and various archaeological residues were found when ploughing the land around the site.

Archeologists unearthed potsherds with names scratched on it in Tamili script. Kuviran and Aathan Archaeologists believe that these were not just the names of the residents of Keeladi, but some of them were honorifics or titles, suggesting the existence of a hierarchy in the society. And that offered many clues to the archaeologists about Tamil civilization: it told them about the language and literacy levels, the social hierarchy, and the age of the civilization.

Pottery tradition in India

Through the ages, pottery has been considered an essential requirement to identify, understand, and characterize civilizations. The style of pottery, the clay minerals used, the firing temperature, and the firing techniques employed by ancient artisans, if known, can all be helpful in unravelling the cultural sequence of a particular archaeological site, the trade and cultural links it had in the past, the technological advancements made, and the historical periods involved. The study of Keeladi pottery confirms the use of natural clay, quartz, and feldspar as the raw materials for pottery work in the ancient period of 500 BC.

The finds are not just restricted to potsherds. Excavations have yielded terracotta sculptures, terracotta roof tiles, gold jewelry, and finely crafted beads suggesting that the society was well off and could afford these luxuries.

They also found water pipes, suggesting that the people of Keeladi were knowledgeable in water management too. Three kinds of channels have been discovered: one is a shallow, broad channel about half a metre across, a few inches in height, and about 6 metres in length thus far excavated, lined with shards of broken terracotta roof tiles. several crisscrossing a 300-square-meter stretch suggest that this was an intensely water using site.

The excavation of ten spindle whorls, twenty sharply pinched bone tip design creation tools, yarn hanging stones, terracotta spheres, copper needles, and earthen vessels to hold liquid attest to the various stages of the weaving industry, from spinning to yarning, looming to weaving, and later dyeing. Ancient cotton from one of the tanks suggests this factory had something to do with clothing.

About 70 samples of Skelton fragments of faunal remains have been sent for analysis, and species such as cows and oxen, buffalo, sheep, goats, Nilgai, blackbucks, wild boars, and peacocks were identified. Through this, it is evident that the people of Keeladi civilization had indulged in agriculture and cattle breeding. And the cut marks on other animals such as the antelope, goat, and wild boar suggest that they were consumed.

Keeladi also appears to have been an egalitarian society. One indication of this is the widespread presence of graffiti. Graffiti like this is most likely done by ordinary people to mark their territory. property. Those discovered in the upper layers have inscriptions in the Tamili script, an early precursor of modern Tamil. A little deeper, the potsherds of the middle layers had inscriptions in both Tamili and some other scratch marks. Epigraphists call these “graffiti. Potsherds found deeper still bore only these graffiti marks. Some of these pieces of graffiti are remarkably similar to the Indus Valley script, which remains undeciphered to this day. The Indus Valley Harappan Civilization existed around 1300 BCE, and we now know that the Vaigai Valley Civilization was at least as old as 800 BCE.

Did the people of Keeladi have ties with the people at Harappa or Mohenjo Daro? Or did the Harappans migrate south?